Blog Competition Runner-up! The brain as the most significant anatomical discovery in history
Rishik Pilla
Find below a wonderful essay, a runner-up, of the Anatomy Blog Competition, discussing the brain as the most significant anatomical discovery, written by Rishik Pilla.
The evolution of our understanding of the human body has substantially changed throughout time, surpassing numerous integral periods and renowned people who have helped shape our anatomical knowledge today. The relatively simple concepts that were initially introduced centuries ago, have been transformed into the complex, multi-functional systems that transpire the amazing human body we know of. One could argue that every landmark anatomical discovery has great significance and their own individual essential functions needed for life. My article will give an account of my thoughts and I will explore my perspective regarding this below.
I believe the most significant anatomical discovery in history to be the brain. This is because, the brain is the central processor of the body and is at the centre of everything we do in our daily lives, from movement to eating, working and sleeping. As the most complex organ, it’s involved in the majority of physiological processes and is responsible for formulating our emotions, actions and memories (New Scientist, 2023). It controls the feeling of sensation through the five senses of sight, touch, hearing, taste and smell, and enables movement via the many intricate muscles it innervates through the nervous system. Furthermore, it is such a remarkable structure of extensive detail, containing approximately one hundred billion neurones producing millions of connections every second. The initial discoveries of the basic understanding of the brain many years ago established the foundation which then paved the way for the uncovering of its structure and many functions.
Our understanding of the brain has undergone drastic changes through time and these changes are still continuing to this day, as it is an expanding area of research. The brain was not always associated with complexity. In 335 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle proposed that the brain was “simply a radiator that kept the all-important heart from overheating” (The University of Queensland Australia, 2023). At that time, the heart was considered the central entity, which carried blood and was the source of heat.
Soon after, around 170 BC, the prominent physician Galen set forth the idea of the functions of the brain to be memory, cognition and common sense and that the brain’s four fluid-filled ventricles held thought processes. Galen sought inspiration from his predecessors including philosophers Aristotle and Plato as well as the early physician Hippocrates who he considered very highly. Galen’s outlook of the body was split into 3 major parts; the brain and nerves (responsible for sensation and thought), heart and arteries (life-energy source) and the liver and veins (nutrition and growth) (Freemon 1994). His principles held true with much of society’s construct, prominently influencing and correlating with anatomical knowledge for centuries until being disproven in the 1600’s. Some of Galen’s disproven theories were that blood would have to be replenished as it would not return to the heart or the liver, and the promotion of humoral theory – the body being composed of four humours, namely: blood, yellow/black bile and phlegm. Nevertheless, his contributions to medicine were immense, as he was the first to make the distinction between arteries and veins and actually put forward the fact that blood vessels carry blood instead of air (Hernandez, 2018).
Succeeding these ancient discoveries, the Belgian anatomist Andreas Vesalius revolutionised much of human anatomy during the 16th century and is considered the founder of modern human anatomy. Vesalius constructed a detailed map of the neural networks that encompass the nervous system and so depicted a more accurate modern day representation of what we currently know. Thereafter, around 1791, the Italian Physician Luigi Galvani illustrated how electricity could stimulate muscle contraction through his experiments on dissected frogs’ legs, and so elucidated a clearer neurological pathway in contradiction to the ‘animal spirit’ hypothesis that guided movement and sensation in the early 18th century (Galvani, 1953).
Following on from this, a much greater understanding of the regions of the brain and their separate distinguishable functions, actually stemmed from a patient case in 1848. Phineas Gage, an American railroad worker, was involved in a serious accident in which a tamping iron rod penetrated right through his left frontal lobe and exited his skull, due to an explosion. His case was the first to make the direct link between the brain and personality changes (Twomey, 2010). Before the accident occurred, Phineas was a kind, hardworking man, but afterwards completely transformed into an aggressive individual who permanently lost his social inhibitions. This provided suggestive evidence and greater understanding of the frontal lobe being involved in personality, which has now expanded to functions such as language, reasoning and social cognition.
Consequently, in the 1900s the brain was studied in much greater detail, with tissues being examined under the microscope and other discoveries being made such that of synapses and the complexity of the nervous system. Since the 1960s, there has been a large emphasis directed towards neuroscience research, and it is an extremely fascinating area of study because there is still so much unknown regarding the brain, and how non-quantifiable, imaginary abstracts such as feelings and memories are actually generated. Alongside this, there are still so many unanswered questions with regards to how functions are maintained during sleep for example, and how all the systems are intertwined together to maintain a fully functional human body.
Going towards the future, this brings about the exciting advent of endless possibilities when it comes to the application and potential use that these discoveries could entail. We are already seeing first-hand how the machinery and neural connectivity of the brain is being replicated and adapted into Artificial Intelligence (AI) to form human-like conversations through popular technology platforms such as Siri, Google Assistant and Amazon Alexa. More examples include machine learning in the form of Google Search, and automation procedures in mass-producing items like the exciting innovation of the 4D printing lab at MIT being used to create large-scale aircraft wings (Infosys, 2023). This can have numerous beneficial uses within the fields of technology, retail, business, transport and healthcare all across the world in addition to advancements in space travel. (BMJ, 2020). A relevant pioneering example in healthcare, is that of mind-controlled prosthetics being used, where an individual is able to control their prosthetic part (leg or arm) as if it were their original body part. This is an extraordinary feat, as it means we are able to reconstruct the complex neural networks to enable someone to regain their sensation, natural movement and flexibility.
In conclusion, I have outlined the complex structure that is the brain and its evolutionary timeline. From being first perceived as a ‘radiator’ helping maintain the indispensable heart by Aristotle, its understanding shifted to playing prominent roles in cognition and memory by Galen. More accurate representations correlating with today, were brought about by Vesalius and Galvani, who established knowledge surrounding the nervous system. This was strengthened through numerous lab experiments, advancements in research and cases such as Phineas Gage over the years. Although there is still much yet to be discovered, the human brain underlies framework of the latest technology and AI, like voice assistants and robotics. Finally, there is so much potential in avenues to explore around the brain in both clinical medicine and scientific research, looking into the future.
Cover image taken from Unsplash
References
BMJ, https://www.bmj.com/content/371/bmj.m3735, 2020
Freemon FR. Galen's ideas on neurological function. J Hist Neurosci. 1994 Oct;3(4):263-71. doi: 10.1080/09647049409525619. PMID: 11618827.
Galvani L. Commentary of the effects of electricity on muscular motion. Foley MG, translator. Norwalk, CT: Burndy Library; 1953
Hernandez B., National Geographic, https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/science/2018/02/this-english-doctor-upended-everything-we-knew-about-the-human-heart#:~:text=According%20to%20Galen's%20theory%2C%20the,became%20imbalanced%2C%20leading%20to%20illness, 2018 (Date Accessed: 25th Feb 2023)
Infosys, https://www.infosys.com/insights/ai-automation/ai-where-human-brain-goes.html, 2023
The University of Queensland Australia, https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/intelligent-machines/understanding-brain-brief-history
Twomey, S., Smithsonian Magazine, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/phineas-gage-neurosciences-most-famous-patient-11390067/, 2010